ࡱ > o r R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n bjbj 7 | | f# f# 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 1 d p2 0 V 4 : L b: b: b: ; j> ? 5 7 7 7 7 7 7 $ ` [ 0 @ ; ; @ @ [ 0 0 b: b: H p 8B 8B 8B @ R 0 b: 0 b: y *
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Nicholas Holyoak1, Bruno Spandonide1, Rocco Zito1, Branko Stazic1
1Flinders University, Tonsley Campus, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001.
2Curtin University, Kent St, Bentley, Western Australia, 6102.
Email for correspondence: nicholas.holyoak@flinders.edu.au
Abstract
This article explores the characteristics of the active transport network in Alice Springs. Bicycle use, walking and using other low-powered forms of transport are already very popular in Alice Springs. This includes a very high rate of pedestrian transport amongst Aboriginal population groups, high rates of bicycle use in wealthy areas of the city, and a relatively high number of low-powered scooters for people in a situation of low-mobility. The active transport infrastructures are unique as well with very large shared pedestrian and bicycle tracks, an exceptional mountain bike / street biking and skateboarding infrastructure and a public transport system which enables an easy access for wheel chairs. The authors examine what it would take to transform the city into a world-class sustainable town by ameliorating the existing active transport network with specific measures to accelerate the take up of active transport. Some low-cost innovations include improving the existing asset with green waves and other smart infrastructures, making use of the high number of household and business and social enterprises equipped with solar photovoltaic systems by installing smart fast recharge station systems at strategic locations for electric assisted non-motorised/low-powered transport, as well as promoting the use of smart equipment. Beyond substantial health benefits, improved traffic management, an amelioration of the building environment and a long-term land value increase could be achieved. The impacts of different initiatives are evaluated. Such a system would allow transforming Alice Springs into a world-class active transport city in less than a decade. A transport simulation of different scenarios is undertaken by computing different parameters and the results are then the object of a critical discussion. Benefit cost ratios perform well and demonstrate that supporting the development of active transport in Alice Springs would be appropriate.
1. Methodology
The aim of this paper is to broadly evaluate the costs and benefits of a more attractive and widely utilised network of low powered transport around Alice Springs at a network level.
Calculating benefits and costs of walking and cycling will be based on infrastructure, transport, time, health and environmental cost evaluations as well as for wider benefits of a set of non-motorised transport innovations ADDIN EN.CITE Litman2014591(Litman, Todd 2013; Litman, Todd 2014a)59159147Litman, ToddEconomic Value of WalkabilityWalk212014NSWVictoria Transport Policy InstituteLitman201358758758727Litman, Todd Transportation Cost and Benefit Analysis II2013CanadaVictoria Transport Policy Institute ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Litman, 2013 #587" Litman, Todd 2013; HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_17" \o "Litman, 2014 #591" Litman, Todd 2014a).
Elasticity effects have been assessed for cycling infrastructure and programs to identify the elasticity of the travel demand from improvements to bicycle networks. However this has predominantly been undertaken at a single transport corridor level for which the methodology can be relatively accurate ADDIN EN.CITE Rissel20131067(Rissel et al. 2013)1067106717Rissel, Chris Greaves, Stephen Wen, Li MingCapon, AnthonyCrane, MelanieStanden,Chris Evaluating the transport, health and economic impacts of new urban cycling infrastructure in Sydney, AustraliaBMC Public Health.BMC Public Health.13: 9632013( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_30" \o "Rissel, 2013 #1067" Rissel et al. 2013). At a network level it will inherently be less accurate and wont account for the major differences characterising different corridors across the network. The modal share impacts of different transport initiatives are broadly evaluated within estimated ranges.
Moreover while non-motorised transport innovations in terms of infrastructure, initiatives, planning and policy, and technologies can be costed reasonably accurately, quantifying the benefits represents a challenge. In order to do so, a general estimate of benefits will be provided as a range based on assumptions and references in both the national ADDIN EN.CITE Austroads20161063(Austroads 2016)1063106317AustroadsNational Cycling Strategy 2011-16 Implementation Report2016( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Austroads, 2016 #1063" Austroads 2016) and international literature and incorporated in a model with the available data and projections of non-motorised transport use in Alice Springs. It is acknowledge that limitations in terms of data accuracy imply that the analysis will need to be refined with more accurate data.
2. Background
Alice Springs, the capital of Central Australia, is remarkable for the use of non-motorised transports by Australian standards. This could seem surprising in many ways: combined factors such as a high use of motorised transports triggered by a situation of geographic isolation or remoteness, very high average mean temperatures (particularly in Summer) and a very small city centre are usually associated with a low use of non-motorised transports. However a number of very diverse socio-cultural and technical elements contribute to the success story of non-motorised transports.
Indeed bicycle use, walking and using other low-powered forms of transport are already very popular in Alice Springs. The low powered transport infrastructures are unique as well. Low-powered transports are used for a variety of needs:
Walking is significant amongst Aboriginal population groups for socio-cultural and economic reasons ADDIN EN.CITE Gray20131048(Gray et al. 2013)1048104817Gray, C.Macniven, R.Thomson, N.Review of physical activity among Indigenous people2013http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/health-risks/physical-activity/reviews/our-review( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Gray, 2013 #1048" Gray et al. 2013). The primary factors for walking are socio-cultural, geographic proximity, health, and financial benefits. Walking is important for Aboriginal people as being central to the connexion to the country with places and landscapes of significance around the city for local Arrernte people.
Walking uses differ according to several socio-cultural functionalities: important socio-cultural, psychological, spiritual and physical values are associated to a variety of forms of walking. Walking also carries out multiple functions, to travel around town for going to work, shopping, meeting friends and relatives, accessing services. Good access to town camps is essential in this regards. For Aboriginal people in Alice Springs, walking routes are defined by the geography of the major town camps, work places, shopping centres and places of significance. Reported average daily distances range between 10 and 25 kilometres per day. In terms of generational and gender patterns, younger males tend to be the most active, twice as much as older females who tend to be less active ADDIN EN.CITE Gray20131048(Gray et al. 2013)1048104817Gray, C.Macniven, R.Thomson, N.Review of physical activity among Indigenous people2013http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/health-risks/physical-activity/reviews/our-review( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "Gray, 2013 #1048" Gray et al. 2013). Large shared pedestrian and bicycle tracks correspond to best-in-class national standards; other additional traditional walking paths are used (Todd River bed, and specific walking tracks). For the non-ATSI population, walking is used to go to work, and for recreational and touristic activities and health related activities (active transports). The walking to work rate is also particularly high in Alice Springs (7.5 per cent).
Running events are also popular in Alice Springs amongst the non-ATSI population. The Alice Springs Running and Walking Club has been active since 1979, promoting running and walking. The MacDonnell Ranges host annually the Alice Springs Running Festival involving a marathon, a half marathon, a 10km run and a 3.7 fun run and the Run Larapinta Stage Race is a 4-stage race taking place over four days on the Larapinta Trail in August.
Wealthy areas of the city are characterised by high rates of bicycle use for both commuting and recreational activities. Mountain bike facilities are outstanding; dedicated street biking and skateboarding infrastructures encourage a wider interest for younger generations; nationally the cycling to work rate in the Northern Territory is very high (5.4 per cent) (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Cycling participation as a proportion of Australian resident population ADDIN EN.CITE Austroads2013952(Austroads & Australian Bicycle Council 2013a)95295227AustroadsAustralian Bicycle Council,2013 Australian Cycling Participation National Cycling Participation Survey2013( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Austroads, 2013 #952" Austroads & Australian Bicycle Council 2013a)
As part of the National Cycling Strategy 2011-2016 the Australian Bicycle Council has commissioned a biennial National Cycling Participation Survey. Key findings appear in Table 1a, b and c:
Table 1a: Percentage of the population riding at least once a week and once a year in Australia and in the Northern Territory
IndicatorAustraliaNTPopulation riding a bicycle in a typical week16.6 per cent23.9 per centPopulation riding at least once in the previous year37.4 per cent37.4 per cent
Gender and generational factors as well as other socio-cultural elements can influence bicycle use ADDIN EN.CITE Institute for Sensible Transport20161064(Institute for Sensible Transport 2016)1064106427Institute for Sensible Transport,Bike Share - Options for Adelaide, Stage Three: Design and Options Assessment2016City of Adelaide,( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Institute for Sensible Transport, 2016 #1064" Institute for Sensible Transport 2016). In the Northern Territory female bicycle use is 60 per cent higher than in Australia but still around two third of the male bicycle use (Table 1b).
Table 1b: Percentage of the population riding at least once a week by gender in Australia and the Northern Territory
IndicatorAustraliaNTMale population riding a bicycle in a typical week20.9 per cent28.2 per centFemale population riding a bicycle in a typical week12.4 per cent19.3 per centTable 1c: Percentage of the population aged 18 and over riding a bicycle at least once a week and once a year in Australia and the Northern Territory
IndicatorAustraliaNTPopulation aged 18 and over riding a bicycle in a typical week9.5 per cent20 per centPopulation aged 18 and over riding a bicycle in a typical year28.0 per cent35 per centYoung children have the highest levels of cycling participation: 44.4 per cent of 2 to 9 year old children had ridden in the previous week, decreasing to 32.2 per cent for 10 to 17 year olds.
In the NT the proportion of households with one or more working bicycles is greater than the Australian average with 69 per cent of households having access to a bicycle compared to 55.2 per cent of households.
Finally the purpose of cycling differs in the NT: Australians riding for transport/work at least once over the previous week for purposes represent 5.1 per cent of the population compared to 13 per cent for the Northern Territory. 14 per cent of Australian use a bicycle at least once per week for recreational or exercise purposes in Australia as opposed to 17 per cent in regional NT (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Cycling participation in past week by purpose and region ADDIN EN.CITE Austroads2013953(Austroads & Australian Bicycle Council 2013b)95395327AustroadsAustralian Bicycle Council,2013 National Cycling Participation Survey Northern Territory Cycling Participation2013( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_5" \o "Austroads, 2013 #953" Austroads & Australian Bicycle Council 2013b)
ADDIN EN.CITE Loader2014829Loader (2014)82982913Loader, ChrisWhat does the census tell us about cycling to work?2014http://chartingtransport.com/category/melbourne/ HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "Loader, 2014 #829" Loader (2014) reported high bicycle mode shares in terms of journey to work in southern Northern Territory (Petermann Simpson), Katherine (NT), and around Darwin and Litchfield, at a regional level; in the Gascoyne Exmouth region in Western Australia; in Aurukun, and Longreach in Queensland as well as around Port Douglas, and St Lucia and as well as in the Ottway in western Victoria and in Longford (Gippsland Lakes) in eastern Victoria.
Alice Springs has a very high rate of bicycle use. East Side, in Alice Springs (Northern Territory) had the fourth highest level of cycling mode share (8 per cent of all trips). Lord Howe Island (NSW) with 21 per cent ranks number one, followed by Acton (ACT covering Australian National University) with 12 per cent and Port Douglas (Queensland) 10 per cent ADDIN EN.CITE Loader2014829(Loader 2014)82982913Loader, ChrisWhat does the census tell us about cycling to work?2014http://chartingtransport.com/category/melbourne/( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "Loader, 2014 #829" Loader 2014).
There are already almost 50 km of shared walking and cycling paths in Alice Springs with best-in-class characteristics such as a 1.6 m width (MPH Carpentry and Construction, personal communication 2015), very good delimitation of the path, an exceptional proximity to some bush landscape, and a world-class mountain back network. Most of the paths are located on particularly flat terrains, and the majority of residents live within 5km of the central activity district ADDIN EN.CITE McClean2014618(McClean & McHenry 2014)61861827McClean, A.McHenry, E. RoadMap to a desertSMART Town 2013-282014Alice SpringsdesertSMART COOLmob
Desert Knowledge Australia( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "McClean, 2014 #618" McClean & McHenry 2014). Excellent safety levels are usually reported on shared pedestrian bicycle paths ADDIN EN.CITE Grzebieta2011958(Grzebieta et al. 2011)95895847Grzebieta, R.H.McIntosh, A.M. Chong, S.Pedestrian-Cyclist Collisions: Issues and RiskAustralasian College of Road Safety Conference A Safe System: Making it Happen! 2011Melbourne 1-2 September 2011( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "Grzebieta, 2011 #958" Grzebieta et al. 2011) and the network in Alice Springs has an excellent general level of protection (crossing excluded).
Alice Springs has three main bicycle corridors corresponding to around 35km of official bicycle tracks for a city area of 148 km and a population of 25,000 inhabitants (with around 300,000 visitors per year who are staying an average of 5 days per night, and another 10-15,000 people coming to the city from regional areas on a weekly basis who would stay overnight, it means that there are around 32,000 people in the city on a daily basis). As a reference in Copenhagen there are 28 bicycle highways for 1,000km of bicycle tracks and an urban population of 1.2 million inhabitants for a city area of 86.20 km2, in Amsterdam about 500km of bicycle tracks for 1.3 million inhabitants living on 219.32 km2). A large portion of the network has limited intersections: on Sadadeen Road, on Undoolya Road and Bougainvilia Avenue, and Kurrajong Drive in East Side and Sadadeen, in the Golf course area, along the Todd River on South Terrace, and Barret Dive, and on Stephens Road, in Gillen on Telegraph Terrace, Bradshaw Drive and in Araluen on Larapinta Drive, and Lovegrove Drive, and in Ciccone and Braitling on Stuart Highway. These designs offer a maximum directness minimising conflicts with other transports.
A world-class mountain bike trail is located at the North and the West sides of Alice Springs (Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3: Alice Springs Cycling townmap, ADDIN EN.CITE Northern Territory Department of Transport2014955(Northern Territory Department of Transport 2014b)95595520Northern Territory Department of Transport,Alice Springs Cycling townmap2014( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_26" \o "Northern Territory Department of Transport, 2014 #955" Northern Territory Department of Transport 2014b)
Figure 4: Alice Springs Cycling map regional ADDIN EN.CITE Northern Territory Department of Transport2014956(Northern Territory Department of Transport 2014a)95695620Northern Territory Department of Transport,Alice Springs cycling map regional 2014( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Northern Territory Department of Transport, 2014 #956" Northern Territory Department of Transport 2014a)
The maps do not show a large number of footpaths which have a good level of walkability and rideability. Bike racks are available in several areas, but no bike share programs exist in Alice Springs.
Some of the main corridors are presented in 2.
Table 2: The Five Busiest Bicycle Commuter Locations in Alice Springs p. 11 ADDIN EN.CITE Bicycle Network2012828(Bicycle Network 2012)82882817Bicycle Network,Super Tuesday, Bicycle Commuter Survey, Alice Springs2012( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_6" \o "Bicycle Network, 2012 #828" Bicycle Network 2012)
The existing strengths and demands for non-motorised transports in Alice Springs imply that there is a strong opportunity for transforming the town into a highly liveable and sustainable smart city through an appropriate long-term planning strategy for promoting active transport options.
Alice Springs hosts a four day six stage mountain bike race (The Redback formerly called the Ingkerreke Commercial MTB Enduro) and a local bicycle film festival. The Central Australian Rough Riders (CARR) mountain bike club has over 160 members, including a thriving kids section called the Dusty Demons.
There is also a noticeably high use of low-powered scooters by people with mobility restrictions and disabilities. Finally, the street infrastructures (commercial centres, main shopping strip) and the public transport system is well designed to enable an easy wheel chair access. For other non-motorised transports, there is a long history of recreational and commercial horse riding activities (for cattle stations) and camel use for freight both in remote communities around Alice Springs and in Alice Springs. Corresponding iconic community events are organised on an annual basis (Camel Cup, bush horse races) and celebrate a complex history of low powered transport utilisation. For other forms of low powered transports, there is a long history of camel and horse riding in Alice Springs with a dynamic heritage still present through races and touristic activities (Marcus Williams is the owner / operator of Pyndan Camel Tracks. cameleer in the outback of Australia since 1982).
Most of the footpath and bicycle tracks are wheel chair friendly and a number of facilities around town are also well-designed to provide access to people with motorised scooters and wheelchairs (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Alice Springs CBD Mobility Access Map ADDIN EN.CITE Alice Springs Town Council20151049(Alice Springs Town Council 2015)1049104917Alice Springs Town Council,Alice Springs CBD Mobility Access Map2015( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_1" \o "Alice Springs Town Council, 2015 #1049" Alice Springs Town Council 2015)
Yet more efforts are still required for Alice Springs to become a smart city for non-motorised transports. Appropriate planning would be able to transform the existing assets of the city into a world-class network for the use of non-motorised transport.
Indeed the fact that Alice Springs has one of the highest use of non-motorised transport in Australia contrasts with international comparisons (Table 3).
Table 3: International comparisons of non-motorised urban transport use
Countries with 20-40 per cent of non-motorised transport useAustria, China, Denmark, Eastern European countries, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, USA (Massachusetts, New York City)
According to the Copenhagen index in 2013 based on 13 categories (advocacy, bicycle culture, bicycle facilities, bicycle infrastructures, bike share programmes, gender split, bicycle modal share, modal share increase, perception of safety, politic, social acceptance, urban planning, and traffic calming), the top agglomerations were Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Utrecht, Seville, Bordeaux, Budapest, Nantes, Antwerp, Eindhoven, Malmo, Berlin, Dublin, and Tokyo.
As a comparison Sydney has one of the lowest levels of bicycle use and related Copenhagen index in the world for large agglomerations. As a reference point Copenhagen driving to work rate is around 12 per cent while urban Australias average is around 70 per cent ADDIN EN.CITE Loader2011596(Loader 2011)59659613Loader, ChrisTrends in Journey to Work Mode Shares in Australian Cities to 20112011http://chartingtransport.com/( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_19" \o "Loader, 2011 #596" Loader 2011).
Furthermore there are still some incoherencies in the transport network hindering a wider utilisation of low powered transports. In a longer time frame developing the usage of the network could be achieved by improving the existing assets with some targeted low-cost technical innovations.
The aim of the article is therefore to explore how a smart low powered transport network could transform Alice Springs into a more sustainable city. The current combined use of non-motorised transport in Alice Springs reaches 6 per cent, while there are around 40 per cent of regular non-motorised transport users. The idea is therefore to capitalise on the existing high proportion of regular non-motorised transport users to explore the potential changes in the demand and evaluate the subsequent cost and benefits of implementing policies and programs in order to trigger the changes.
3. Improvements
3.1. Infrastructure improvements
The network has several black spots, with unsmooth and unsafe designs. A number of crossings are still unsafe or particularly unfriendly for non-motorised transports. The main cycling tracks of the network are poorly-connected to the rest of the rideable corridors. Furthermore, there are several crossing points which are potentially dangerous because of a limited space available (The Gap and intersections with the city centre) and are therefore avoided by a number of cyclists decreasing the potential use of the network (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Alice Springs Bicycle and Walking network ADDIN EN.CITE Northern Territory Department of Transport2014956(Northern Territory Department of Transport 2014a)95695620Northern Territory Department of Transport,Alice Springs cycling map regional 2014( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Northern Territory Department of Transport, 2014 #956" Northern Territory Department of Transport 2014a)
Priority should be given to new and existing urban areas which are not well supplied in tracks and areas with a strong potential demand for non-motorised transports. Extending the network and integrating the existing paths through direct connexions using the existing network of sidewalk could allow increasing the number of alternative routes (Figure 7).
Figure 9: Alice Springs New Bicycle and Walking network
Addressing the issues of the network intersections is the main priority. No connexions exist to the airport and several town camps. Places of significance for the ATSI population need to be appropriately acknowledged, signed and supplied.
Best practice consists of separate lanes ADDIN EN.CITE Macmillan20141053(Macmillan et al. 2014)1053105317Macmillan, AlexandraConnor, JennieWitten, KarenKearns, RobinRees, DavidWoodward, AlistairThe Societal Costs and Benefits of Commuter Bicycling: Simulating the Effects of Specific Policies Using System Dynamics ModelingEnvironmental Health PerspectivesEnvironmental Health Perspectives volume 122number 42014http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307250( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_21" \o "Macmillan, 2014 #1053" Macmillan et al. 2014) which is compatible with current infrastructure benchmarks on Alice Springs network. Roundabouts with colour-painted bike lanes for improved visibility of crossing would be installed at key intersections with heavy patronage.
Moreover secured and accessible parking facilities at strategic locations such as transport hubs (train station, bus stations, airport) commercial hubs and employment hubs (city centre) would be in-line with best-practice examples in the Northern hemisphere ADDIN EN.CITE Brown20091057(Brown 2009)1057105760Brown, Lester R.Earth Policy InsituteChapter 6. Designing Cities for People: The Return of BicyclesPlan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization2009http://www.earth-policy.org/books/pb4/PB4ch6_ss4( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_9" \o "Brown, 2009 #1057" Brown 2009).
3.2. New technologies
Smart technologies of traffic control and communication can improve the use of non-motorised transports. To address issues of losses from theft, user damage, and vandalism "smart" technologies including can be used (electronic locks, smart cards, telecommunication systems, and on-board computers). Open source bicycle share programs such as Github exists to organise the rent and tracking of bicycles (https://github.com/mmmaly/OpenSourceBikeShare/). Green wave traffic engineering systems exists in areas like Copenhagen, Amsterdam, and San Francisco ADDIN EN.CITE Blaise2012968(Blaise 2012; Monsere et al. 2014)96896817Blaise, K.A Green Wave ReprieveTraffic Engineering & ControlHemming Group, Limited55-585322012Monsere201410541054105427Monsere, ChrisDill, JenniferMcNeill, NathanClifton, KellyGoddard, TaraBerkow, MattGilpin, JoeVoros, Kimvan Hengel, DrusillaParks, JamieLessons from the green lanes: evaluating protected bike lanes in the u.s.2014Portland, USANational Institute for Transportation and Communities( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_8" \o "Blaise, 2012 #968" Blaise 2012; HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_23" \o "Monsere, 2014 #1054" Monsere et al. 2014). Green wave consists of dedicated traffic signals permitting cyclists to move out before cars and travel in a seamless way.
For the local and visiting people with disability / low-mobility, suitable non-motorised transports equipment (fast solar-powered recharge stations, apps, low-powered vehicle rentals, low-powered taxis) can allow a better access with significant social benefits.
Dedicated smart applications for cycling with focuses on road maintenance (Fill that hole), general information (Cyclemeter, Strava or Cycle Watch), vehicle maintenance and adjustment (Bike doctor, Size my bike) could be adjusted for Alice Springs.
For example a major issue for cyclists in Alice Springs consists of the great numbers of four corner thorns (Ribulus macrocarpus) causing a great deal of punctures all year round.
Locals are often using tubeless tyres (UST) and tread with low profile tyres or tubeless rims, or appropriate sealant inside the tyre. Locals are also used to carry appropriate amounts of water and sunscreen.
Finally for recreational uses there are already some applications dedicated to recreational and touristic information (Around Me, Everplaces, Foursquare, Gogobot, Trip Advisor, Tourist Eye, Tripomatic, Wikitude) which could integrate some specific low powered transport information; for instance, walking (Runtastic, Joggy Coach), and biking (Ibiker and MyFitnessPal), applications dedicated to performances or directions (such as ViewRanger, Map My Walk, RouteBuddy, Endomondo, MyTrails, TwoNav for walking and Mapmyride, Bike hub cycle journey planner for bicycles) could be made available for Alice Springs.
For non-motorised/low-powered vehicle hiring options (such as the Dutch OV Fiets bike-share system or Cycle hire) some dedicated apps could make the system particularly user friendly.
For people with low-mobility and different forms of disability addressing different types of needs apps which could be used in combination of smarter infrastructures could also deliver new forms of services at a low-cost price tag: from information and communication such as Out&About, Voice Dream Reader or Taptotalk to applications with a focus on medical needs (emergency Information such as iMedJet). For the most vulnerable users a range of applications and device exist (Bikn, Trax, Protag, BluTracker, StickNFind, PebbleBee, XY Find-It, Bringrr, Tile, Lupo, Linquet) and could be more actively promoted.
3.3. Regulatory improvements
In Australia the Standard AS/NZS 2063 regulates bicycle helmets. However wearing a helmet for bicycle transport is not compulsory in the Northern Territory on bicycle paths separated from the road. However, wearing a helmet considerably reduces risks of a head injury ADDIN EN.CITE Bicycle New South Wales2014957(Bicycle New South Wales 2014)95795712Bicycle New South Wales,Legal2014http://bicyclensw.org.au/advocacy/positions/legal/( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Bicycle New South Wales, 2014 #957" Bicycle New South Wales 2014).
In the Northern Territory all cycle paths are shared paths and cyclists are allowed to ride on the footpath unless signed otherwise. Pedestrians have priority and cyclists have to keep to the left ADDIN EN.CITE NT Department of Transport20161059(NT Department of Transport 2016)1059105917NT Department of Transport,NT Road Users Handbookp. 332016http://www.bicyclent.org.au/cycling-in-the-nt/nt-road-rules/( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_27" \o "NT Department of Transport, 2016 #1059" NT Department of Transport 2016).
Appropriate helmet design standards should be regularly reviewed (MIPS standards). Recently bicycle and pedestrian airbags have been developed such as Hvding, which developed a solution compliant with European standards (CE marked).
3.3. Prevention, education and community events
Appropriate education programs focusing on non-motorised transport usage in warm climate could increase transport safety (mechanics tips, chains greasing, tyres checking and pumping and riding tips such as wearing an appropriate bicycle helmet with high ventilation fittings, a light fabric around the wrist, lightweight natural fabric covering the body to avoid sunburns and using sunscreen as well as drinking water). Children and young people represent a particularly important audience for safety education.
A high number of the events organised for the promotion of active transports are focused on recreational activities and there is an opportunity to develop practical events to further encourage people to use non-motorised and low-powered transports for going to work, doing some shopping/administration and visiting friends and relatives.
Funding programs for education can also be positively linked to active transports in order to promote a culture of caring for the country and highly sustainable wellbeing in remote Australia ADDIN EN.CITE Urbis Australia20141055(Urbis Australia 2014)1055105527Urbis Australia,Unlocking Smart Growth in Australian Cities2014The Council of Capital City Lord Mayors,( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_32" \o "Urbis Australia, 2014 #1055" Urbis Australia 2014). Free bike education lessons are available to schools during school hours at the Newland Park Safety Centre in Alice Springs ADDIN EN.CITE NT.gov.au20161060(NT.gov.au 2016)1060106012NT.gov.auBicycle Safety2016https://nt.gov.au/driving/safety/bicycle-safety( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_28" \o "NT.gov.au, 2016 #1060" NT.gov.au 2016). Short Trips are Bikeable is a program which tries to promote cycling in the Northern Territory ADDIN EN.CITE Austroads20161063(Austroads 2016)1063106317AustroadsNational Cycling Strategy 2011-16 Implementation Report2016( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Austroads, 2016 #1063" Austroads 2016).
Small business opportunities exist for cultural walks and rides with local Aboriginal people around the city for locals and interstate and international tourists.
3.4. Planning and policy improvements
There is also a need for cross integration of government agencies and a strong community planning process to identify the opportunities of developing and integrating the network as a multi-functional infrastructure (better access to public places, and enhanced public-use functionality of the network), with plans to have accessible commercial and recreational functions located at key nodes of the network ADDIN EN.CITE Infrastructure Australia20091056(Infrastructure Australia 2009)1056105617Infrastructure Australia,Cycling Infrastructure for Australian Cities2009( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Infrastructure Australia, 2009 #1056" Infrastructure Australia 2009). A dedicated Bicycle Master Plan would be an opportunity for planning and delivering different projects in Alice Springs. A world class active transport planning strategy would include a fully integrated public transport system with active transport corridors, and strategies to restrict car ownership, use and parking in the city ADDIN EN.CITE Pucher2008712(Pucher & Buehler 2008)71271217Pucher, JohnBuehler, RalphMaking Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and GermanyTransport ReviewsTransport Reviews2008( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_29" \o "Pucher, 2008 #712" Pucher & Buehler 2008).
Appropriate consultation is also required for designing a more culturally appropriate network with places of significance well-acknowledged, signed and supplied, in different languages, public spaces valued and decorated by local artists, space well accommodated for cultural uses, and well-communicated plans to cater for the needs of local and visiting people with disability / low-mobility involving non-motorised transports through dedicated services and facilities, good lighting and signage incorporated into a transition plan to a non-motorised transport smart town.
Improve the pedestrian amenity of Alice Springs through careful consideration and construction of practical pedestrian friendly routes between suburban centres and the CBD to make walking an attractive and widely utilised form of transport around town.
Design details such as solar powered recharge stations, user friendly (ramps for stairs, rails at traffic lights access, conversation lanes, vehicle counters) and waste management equipment (recycling bins).
Bike share programs have been particularly successful in different types of urban environment around the world. ADDIN EN.CITE DeMaio20091061(DeMaio 2009; Shaheen et al. 2010)1061106117DeMaio, PaulBike-sharing: History, Impacts, Models of Provision, and FutureJournal of Public Transportation,Journal of Public Transportation,Vol. 12No. 42009Shaheen201010621062106217Shaheen, SusanGuzman, StaceyZhang, HuaBikesharing in Europe, the Americas, and Asia: Past, Present, and Future Transportation Research Record2010( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_11" \o "DeMaio, 2009 #1061" DeMaio 2009; HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_31" \o "Shaheen, 2010 #1062" Shaheen et al. 2010).
4. Modelling
Modelling the potential impacts of a set of initiatives improving the network is particularly complex. It is likely that these impacts differ from when studied individually to when combined together as the different initiatives impacts can interact with each other (cumulative or conflicting impacts). Further research would be required to identify the types of combination of impacts that is likely to be occurring in Alice Springs (for instance linear or exponential increase). In this paper it is assumed that cumulative impacts are asymptotic with marginal additional increase (10 per cent).
Indeed the combined effects of the different initiatives for Alice Springs have been scaled and weighted in a matrix displayed in Table 4.
Table 4: Combined modal share effects of the non-motorised transport initiatives for Alice Springs
Categories Initiatives 10 year impactNon-motorised Transport infrastructuresTechnological innovationsPolicy and planningNon-motorised Transport infrastructuresExtended infrastructure15-25 per cent
Rate from 6-8 per cent
N/a30-40 per cent
Rate from 7-10 per cent75-100 per cent
Rate from 8-12 per centImproved roundaboutsStrategic parking facilitiesGreen waveDedicated high quality public amenitiesTechnological innovationsSmart technologies (electronic locks, telecommunication systems)7.5-15 per cent
Rate from 6-7 per cent
30-40 per cent
Rate from 7-10 per centN/a100-150 per cent
Rate from 12-15 per centLow-powered electric deviceFast recharge stationsSmart applicationsSafety innovationsPolicy and planningBike sharing/hiring25-50 per cent
Rate from 6-9 per cent
75-100 per cent
Rate from 8-12 per cent100-150 per cent
Rate from 12-15 per centN/aGrants Education programsCommunity eventsIntegrated planningCar reduction policy (paid parking)Reduction of driving speedCross integration of transport agencies
Impacts are evaluated from a review of the literature as broad estimates. This will be the basis for a simulation of three scenarios where non-motorised transport increase by 15-50 per cent, 75-100 per cent and 100-150 per cent per cent respectively.
5. Scenarios
A series of three scenarios has been designed and are based on a regular transport user sample of 20,000 people. As per above, the resulting rate of non-motorised transport use increases to 7-9 per cent in the first scenario, 10-12 per cent in the second scenario and 12-15 per cent in the third scenario (Table 5):
Table 5: Active transport scenario for Alice Springs
ScenarioAustralia1. A better network
60 kilometres of cycling and walking tracks are made available, one third from new tracks and two third from retrofitted tracks. Cycling and walking increase by a maximum of 50 per cent to reach 9 per cent of the transport modal share (1,600 new users). Car traffic drops by 5 per cent on these stretches to decrease to 80 per cent of the modal share (1,600 less users).2. An enhanced smart network60 kilometres of cycling and walking tracks are made available, one third from new tracks and two third from retrofitted tracks. The entire network is equipped with state of the art standards. A bypass is created around the city so that heavy vehicles do not use Stuart Highway within the city. Cycling and walking increases by a maximum of 100 per cent to reach 12 per cent of the transport modal share (2,400 new users). Car traffic drops by 10 per cent to 72.5 per cent of the modal share (2,400 less users). Time costs decrease by half for low powered transport users but are somewhat similar for road users. Land value increase from an attractive town widely utilising low powered transport forms) evolve in the AUD100 per person range (based on an additional 1 per cent value of the average three bedroom house over ten years for four household members).3. A cutting edge smart network120 kilometres of cycling and walking tracks are made available, two thirds from new tracks and two third from retrofitted tracks. The entire network is equipped with state of the art standards. A strong policy is encouraging active transport use with set payments and grants for equipment. The city centre is entirely pedestrian (as opposed to half of Todd Mall currently). Cycling and walking increases by 150 per cent to reach 15 per cent of the transport modal share (3,000 new users). Car traffic drops by 15 per cent to 69 per cent of the modal share (3,000 less users). Health costs are decreased by half and additional health benefits account for AUD2,000 per user. Time costs decrease by half for low powered transport users but are somewhat similar for road users. Land value increase from an attractive town widely utilising low powered transport forms) evolve in the AUD100 per person range (based on an additional 1 per cent value of the average three bedroom house over ten years for four household members).
A series of assumptions are used to evaluate the benefits of an enhanced low powered transport network in Alice Springs.
The cost of 1 kilometre of stand-alone cycling track is between AUD150,000 and AUD300,000 per kilometre depending on the level of equipment and secondary investments associated with the tracks. Retrofitting or adapting road or large footpath for the use of bicycle would be around half. Average additional time costs of 30 minutes per day are factored in (AUD12.5 per hour, half of the average wage).
Benefits include savings of not using motorised vehicles (capital and operational, fixed and variable costs), health, social and land use benefits as well as environmental benefits ADDIN EN.CITE Moving People 2030 Taskforce2013641(Moving People 2030 Taskforce 2013)64164127Moving People 2030 Taskforce,Moving Australia 2030 A Transport Plan for a Productive and Active Australia2013ACT( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Moving People 2030 Taskforce, 2013 #641" Moving People 2030 Taskforce 2013).
Average capital costs are estimated to be around AUD1,000 per year per person and would diminish only marginally, registration, fuel, insurance and maintenance costs are estimated to be around AUD3,000 per year and would diminish by 60 per cent for new users (AUD2,800 saved). Wider benefits for the population of Alice Springs include for the town in general, benefits in terms of health and community wellbeing, improvement of the building environment and a long-term land value increase will occur ADDIN EN.CITE Australian Local Government Association2012284(Australian Local Government Association et al. 2012)28428427Australian Local Government Association,Bus Industry Confederation,Cycling Promotion Fund,National Heart Foundation of Australia,International Association of Public Transport,An Australian Vision for Active Transport2012ACT( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_2" \o "Australian Local Government Association, 2012 #284" Australian Local Government Association et al. 2012).
In a conservative way land use benefit would be minimal. Active transport health benefits are estimated to be around AUD150-1,500 per user per year ADDIN EN.CITE Litman2014592(Litman, Todd 2014b)59259227Litman, ToddEvaluating Active Transport Benefits and Costs Guide to Valuing Walking and Cycling Improvements and Encouragement Programs2014CanadaVictoria Transport Policy Institute( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_18" \o "Litman, 2014 #592" Litman, Todd 2014b). Other authors reported more significant health benefit levels ADDIN EN.CITE Yi20111065(Yi et al. 2011)1065106547Yi, MatthewFeeney, KatieAdams, DavidGarcia, ClaudiaChandra, ParishValuing cycling Evaluating the economic benefits of providing dedicated cycle ways at a strategic network level Australasian Transport Research Forum 2011 201128 - 30 September 2011Adelaide, Australia http://atrf.info/papers/2011/2011_Yi_Feeney_Adams_Garcia_Chandra.pdf( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_33" \o "Yi, 2011 #1065" Yi et al. 2011). Pollution associated health benefits are around half; social benefits would be around AUD100 per year and environmental benefits around AUD 25 per year at AUD 3 per tonne of carbon. At an enterprise level, a better integrated network can help to attract more economic resources ADDIN EN.CITE Litman2014591(Litman, Todd 2014a)59159147Litman, ToddEconomic Value of WalkabilityWalk212014NSWVictoria Transport Policy Institute( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_17" \o "Litman, 2014 #591" Litman, Todd 2014a). The use of information technology applications can enable improved traffic management and accessibility for local inhabitants, commuters, people with disabilities and tourists.
The findings discuss the cost-effectiveness of investing in low powered transport improvements and assess how the local transport network could be lifted to a world-class standard.
6. Results
The findings are discussed in Table 6:
Table 6: Active transport scenario benefit cost ratios (BCR) for Alice Springs
ScenarioDescription1. A better network
Costs for Alice Springs AUD10 million over 10 years
Costs for users is AUD3,000 per year (AUD40 million over 10 years)
Savings for new users AUD2,8000 for 1,600 users over 10 years (AUD45 million)
Savings for Alice Springs, 30 million over 10 years.
BCR for users = 0.98
BCR for Alice Springs = 3
Total BCR = 1.5 2. An enhanced smart networkCosts for Alice Springs AUD15 million over 10 years
Costs for users is AUD2,500 per year (AUD50 million over 10 years)
Savings for new users AUD3,800 for 2,400 users over 10 years (AUD91 million)
Savings for Alice Springs, 50 million over 10 years.
BCR for users = 1.82
BCR for Alice Springs = 3.3
Total BCR = 2.173. A cutting edge smart networkCosts for Alice Springs AUD25 million over 10 years
Costs for users is AUD2,000 per year (AUD60 million over 10 years)
Savings for new users AUD4,000 for 3,000 users over 10 years (AUD120 million)
Savings for Alice Springs, 100 million over 10 years.
BCR for users = 2
BCR for Alice Springs = 4
Total BCR = 2.58
In a preliminary exercise modelling Alice Springs network improvements at specific nodes, BCRs were particularly high (3.35- 3.975). While moderating at holistic network level, BCRs are still particularly positive (1.5-2.58).
The BCRs increase proportionally for users, with an inverse relationship for the city: while benefits at a city level are high at early stages with an improvement at a network level, they rapidly follow an asymptotic logic with limited marginal benefits from technological improvements. An inverse relationship characterises user benefits. While the number of users in our scenarios increases in a linear way, significant benefits appear to be achievable from the third scenario, where the benefits from the seamless integration and some comprehensive time savings from new technologies define a new smart remoteness livelihood.
7. Conclusion
This article explores the characteristics of the non-motorised network in Alice Springs and the opportunities to bring it to a world-class standard. The modelling is based on broad assumptions and the extrapolation of a todays base case scenario in three different scenarios of policies supporting non-motorised transport for the period of the simulation (ten years).
From a transport economics perspective the research contribute to provide at a macro-economic level, a realistic view of the benefits of an advanced non-motorised transport system in a large remote Australian urban centre. The results suggest particularly good prospects for developing active transport and determine the scope of different potential initiatives. While at a city level, targeted actions might deliver strong returns, long-term holistic initiatives provide the best value for money outcomes for users.
Alice Springs could by creating a smoother and safer network for non-motorised transports with a better integration to other functionalities of the city (better access to public places, and enhanced public use functionality of the network) become a role model as a culturally friendly area with a highly inclusive access for people with low-mobility and an exceptional and redefined level of human development. The long-term benefits of a highly liveable smart city include increased sustainability of economic development, a higher quality of life, health benefits, an improved management of natural resources ADDIN EN.CITE Caragliu2009959(Caragliu et al. 2009)95995947Caragliu, AndreaDel Bo, ChiaraNijkamp, PeterSmart cities in Europe 3rd Central European Conference in Regional Science CERS, 20092009( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Caragliu, 2009 #959" Caragliu et al. 2009), an increased socio-cultural engagement within the community, increased productivity levels, good governance and strengthened resilience levels amongst the community. Eventually the paper did not examine the strength of potential co-benefits that could be derived from a world-class non-motorised transport system. Further research will include detailed analysis of different datasets and integrate potential co-benefits in the model.
8. References
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ATRF 2016 Proceedings
Active Deserts: Alice Springs as a world-class non-motorised transportation town
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Australasian Transport Research Forum 2016 Proceedings
16 18 November 2016, Melbourne, Australia
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