ࡱ > . o p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ a bjbj : M\M\ ( ( 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 N6 | 7 6 N: :@ L @ @ @ A fD rE # ٠ b 6 E A A E E 6 6 @ @ H Û K K K E 6 @ 6 @ \ P K E K K @ p< G ^ 8 H ٛ 0 Њ , ; vG ` ; p ; 6 L E E K E E E E E K E E E E E E E ; E E E E E E E E E ( > 4 : Bus Rapid Transit and features of land distribution: A case study of Brisbane
Svitlana Pyrohova1, Mark Hickman2, Zhen-Liang Ma3
1 School of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072 Australia
2 School of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072 Australia
2 School of Civil Engineering, University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072 Australia
Email for correspondence: s.pyrohova@uq.edu.au
Abstract
A transportation mode known as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) recently has received special emphasis within the other modes of mass transit. BRT systems have been frequently implemented over the past few decades world-wide. However interaction of these systems with surrounding land use has not been comprehensively studied. This study aims to explore what are the land patterns associated with BRT system in the Brisbane context. For a better understanding of the situation in the study area, previous research is considered and a descriptive analysis of zones composition, as a dominant development type, their diversity, and natural groupings of lands, is included. A public transport accessibility map was generated for the Brisbane public transport network, with emphasis on areas around the Brisbane busways. This provides the basis for future clustering of the study areas with similar land features and accessibility levels, which plays a vital role for further redevelopment and planning practice.
1. Introduction
A transportation mode known as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) recently has received a special emphasis within the other modes of mass transit. BRT systems have been frequently implemented over the past few decades world-wide. Nowadays, these systems exist in more than 200 cities over six continents ADDIN EN.CITE BRTDATA.ORG2016127(BRTDATA.ORG, 2016)12712712BRTDATA.ORG,201617 April 2016http://brtdata.org/( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_5" \o "BRTDATA.ORG, 2016 #127" BRTDATA.ORG, 2016). The majority of BRTs have been constructed in countries located in Latin America and Asia. BRT has become an attractive option in delivering mass public transit for its high operating speed, flexibility, reliability and lower cost in comparison to rail investments. While recent BRT studies have explored operational characteristics and technical aspects of the system performance, the impacts of these systems on land use composition change have not been comprehensively studied. Land uses generate demand for transportation and, at the same time, transit provides mobility to travellers to desirable destinations. Integration of land use and transportation is seen as a goal of sustainable planning for urban agglomerations. Intuitively, introduction of a new high frequency service would influence surrounding land uses in terms of intensification and a more mixed built environment. However, it has been argued that BRTs ability to enhance urban land development is rather limited when compared to rail systems.
This research is considering land uses in the context of Brisbanes BRT system and provides analysis of catchment areas in the vicinity of busways stations. The following questions are discussed: 1) what are the main categories of land use and how diverse are they; 2) are some of these BRT stations suitable for particular development initiatives such as Transit Oriented Development (TOD) in the context of Brisbane busways; and, 3) how accessible is the whole network of public transport for city residents overall.
2. Literature review
The problem of land use and transport integration is well-known for many years and research into the topic has a long history and complex outcomes. Early studies tried to examine this issue in detail even without modern advantages in data analysis. A branch of studies on bus rapid transit has emerged recently, as a result of new systems in construction all over the world.
A majority of studies assessing BRT impacts on land use are focused on land capitalization benefits and property values. Bogotas Transmilenio BRT system has been a case study for many of those inquiries. In 2004 Rodrguez and Targa ADDIN EN.CITE Rodrguez200464(2004)646417Rodrguez, Daniel ATarga, FelipeValue of accessibility to Bogot's bus rapid transit systemTransport ReviewsTransport Reviews587-61024520040144-1647( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_27" \o "Rodrguez, 2004 #64" 2004) investigated effects from changed accessibilities on residential property rents after new BRT construction. They observed an increase in premiums for properties closer to the BRT stations, though no evident association has been found between physical accessibility to activity nodes and asking prices. The reason authors often suggest is behind this dearth of evidence is authorities lack of belief in BRTs ability to enhance economic development and deliver future accessibility benefits. Similarly, Perdomo Calvo et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Perdomo Calvo200766(2007)666617Perdomo Calvo, Jorge AndrsMendoza, Camilo ABaquero-Ruiz, Andrs FranciscoMendieta-Lopez, Juan CarlosStudy of the effect of the transmilenio mass transit project on the value of properties in Bogot, ColombiaLincoln Institute of Land Policy Working Paper No. WP07CA1Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Working Paper No. WP07CA12007( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_21" \o "Perdomo Calvo, 2007 #66" 2007) assessed residential and commercial properties adjacent to BRT lines. A following study ADDIN EN.CITE Rodrguez200967(Rodrguez and Mojica, 2009)676717Rodrguez, Daniel AMojica, Carlos HCapitalization of BRT network expansions effects into prices of non-expansion areasTransportation Research Part A: Policy and PracticeTransportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice560-57143520090965-8564( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_26" \o "Rodrguez, 2009 #67" Rodrguez and Mojica, 2009) on Transmilenios corridor extensions observed a price increase of 13-14% for residential properties in one year after the busway extension. In analysis of new properties values, Muoz-Raskin ADDIN EN.CITE Munoz-Raskin201069(2010)696917Munoz-Raskin, RamonWalking accessibility to bus rapid transit: Does it affect property values? The case of Bogot, ColombiaTransport PolicyTransport Policy72-8417220100967-070X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "Munoz-Raskin, 2010 #69" 2010) showed that housing closer to feeder BRT lines is valued more than housing located further from these lines. A number of studies investigated the effects from the Seoul BRT system on land prices. In 2011, Cervero and Kang ADDIN EN.CITE Cervero201119(2011)191917Cervero, RobertKang, Chang DeokBus rapid transit impacts on land uses and land values in Seoul, KoreaTransport PolicyTransport Policy102-11618120110967-070X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Cervero, 2011 #19" 2011) observed 187,000 parcels within a radius of a bus stop and found 10% premiums in land prices within 300m of a bus stop (for residential properties) and 25% premiums within 150 m (for commercial properties). A year later, Jun ADDIN EN.CITE Jun201237(2012)373717Jun, Myung-JinRedistributive effects of bus rapid transit (BRT) on development patterns and property values in Seoul, KoreaTransport PolicyTransport Policy85-9219120120967-070X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Jun, 2012 #37" 2012) used a Seoul urban simulation model for the generation of different development scenarios and detected an increase in density for development after BRT construction. In the United States, Perk ADDIN EN.CITE Perk201071(2010)717117Perk, VictoriaMugharbel, MelissaCatal, MartinImpacts of bus rapid transit stations on surrounding single-family home values: Study of East Busway in Pittsburgh, PennsylvaniaTransportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research BoardTransportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board72-79214420100361-1981( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Perk, 2010 #71" 2010) and Perk et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Perk201238(2012)383827Perk, Victoria ACatala, MartinReader, StevenLand Use Impacts of Bus Rapid Transit: Phase IIEffects of BRT Station Proximity on Property Values along the Boston Silver Line Washington Street Corridor00222012Federal Transit Administration0022( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_23" \o "Perk, 2012 #38" 2012) assessed BRT lines in Pittsburgh and Boston, with gains in property premiums observed in both cases.
At the same time, shifts in land use types or composition have not been investigated so precisely compared to evaluation of property or land capitalization. Since a majority of BRT systems are too new and have been in operation for a short period of time, the limited number of studies and limited evidences can be expected. A longitudinal study by Cervero and Kang ADDIN EN.CITE Cervero201119(2011)191917Cervero, RobertKang, Chang DeokBus rapid transit impacts on land uses and land values in Seoul, KoreaTransport PolicyTransport Policy102-11618120110967-070X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Cervero, 2011 #19" 2011) examined effects from BRT on land use types and value changes for Seouls BRT system. That study shows that in the Korean context, property owners are more likely to convert residences to condominiums. The authors suggested that higher levels of accessibility prompted owners to intensify land uses after busway construction. Seouls busway study by Kang ADDIN EN.CITE Kang201036(2010)363617Kang, Chang DeokThe impact of bus rapid transit on location choice of creative industries and employment density in Seoul, KoreaInternational Journal of Urban SciencesInternational Journal of Urban Sciences123-15114220101226-5934( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Kang, 2010 #36" 2010) indicates the eagerness of firms and creative industries to locate closer to a bus stops. In another study of Seoul BRT, Jun ADDIN EN.CITE Jun201237(2012)373717Jun, Myung-JinRedistributive effects of bus rapid transit (BRT) on development patterns and property values in Seoul, KoreaTransport PolicyTransport Policy85-9219120120967-070X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Jun, 2012 #37" 2012) has measured changes in density of development with a use of Seoul urban simulation model and observed that BRT has more effect on commercial and retail properties rather than residential properties. In 2012 Perk et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Perk201238(2012)383827Perk, Victoria ACatala, MartinReader, StevenLand Use Impacts of Bus Rapid Transit: Phase IIEffects of BRT Station Proximity on Property Values along the Boston Silver Line Washington Street Corridor00222012Federal Transit Administration0022( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_23" \o "Perk, 2012 #38" 2012) looked at the land use types changes along the Washington Street corridor in Boston. An increase in the number of condominiums has been observed in the vicinity of the BRT line. Bocarejo et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bocarejo201335(2013)353517Bocarejo, Juan PabloPortilla, IngridPrez, Maria AnglicaImpact of Transmilenio on density, land use, and land value in BogotResearch in Transportation EconomicsResearch in Transportation Economics78-8640120130739-8859( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_2" \o "Bocarejo, 2013 #35" 2013), in a study of Bogotas Transmilenio BRT system, investigated changes in housing, commercial and office areas. Though they identified an increase in population density in zones adjacent to busways, there is still no consistent evidence that changes in housing, commercial and office areas were associated with Transmilenio. Market forces are more likely to have played a role in these changes rather than policy strategies.
Some studies were interested in the role of BRT for TOD planning. For instance, Currie ADDIN EN.CITE Currie200517(Currie, 2005, Currie, 2006)171710Currie, GrahamStrengths and weakness of bus in relation to transit oriented developmentTransit Oriented DevelopmentMaking it Happen Conference, Perth, Western Australia, July2005Currie200620202017Currie, GrahamBus transit oriented developmentstrengths and challenges relative to railJournal of Public TransportationJournal of Public Transportation19420061077-291X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_8" \o "Currie, 2005 #17" Currie, 2005, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_9" \o "Currie, 2006 #20" Currie, 2006) discusses strengths and weaknesses of BTOD (Bus rapid transit oriented development). In this research the data from the Adelaide busway system (Australia) demonstrates that socio-demographic characteristics of BRT passengers correspond more to the rail passengers, rather than those of regular bus. In a recent work, Cervero and Dai ADDIN EN.CITE Cervero201416(2014)161617Cervero, RobertDai, DanielleBRT TOD: Leveraging transit oriented development with bus rapid transit investmentsTransport PolicyTransport Policy127-1383620140967-070X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_6" \o "Cervero, 2014 #16" 2014) surveyed 27 cities that have implemented BRT systems. Respondents from planning and consultancies named targeting infrastructure improvements and zoning incentives the most efficient policy tools, but with the least effective measures being the lack of budgeting and absence of TOD planning before the system construction, which were considered as the most problematic.
3. Study area and data
3.1. Case study of Brisbane
This paper assesses the state of land uses around BRT stations in the context of Brisbanes busway system (Queensland, Australia). According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the population of Greater Brisbane (Figure 1) reached 2.27 million people in 2014. Queensland household travel surveys assessed the number of daily trips Brisbane residents make as 6.3 million in 2009. A majority of them (more than 70%) have been made by a private car. At the same time, the Brisbane central business district is the biggest trip generator in the region with 10% of total trips of Southeast Queensland (SEQ) dedicated there. The combination of the above factors contributes to growing congestion levels and mobility problems. The city has a complex topography where the Brisbane River creates a natural barrier to connect different parts of the inner city. The complicated geography, a growing population and high motorization levels urged local authorities to work out a transportation solution which will provide higher mobility levels to Brisbane inhabitants and ensure further economic growth of the region.
Prior to the busways construction, the city had already established a network of fast express-bus services as CityXpress, Rockets, and BUZ routes which provided services on weekdays and weekends ADDIN EN.CITE Hoffman200810(Hoffman, 2008)101027Hoffman, AlanAdvanced Network Planning for Bus Rapid Transit: The Quickway Model as a Modal Alternative to Light Rail Lite1-1162008Federal Transit AdministrationFL-26-7104-4( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "Hoffman, 2008 #10" Hoffman, 2008). It is a known fact that Brisbane bureaucrats were inspired by Ottawas Quickway system, and due to Brisbane City Council promotion, the busways project received a green light ADDIN EN.CITE Tanko20135(Tanko and Burke, 2013)5510Tanko, MichaelBurke, MatthewHow Did Brisbane Get its Busways? Findings of a study into mode-choice decision-making in Brisbane2013Australian Transport Research Forum, 2013, Proceedings( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_28" \o "Tanko, 2013 #5" Tanko and Burke, 2013). The first busway corridor, named the South East Busway, was opened in 2000, with the following segments of the Northern (2008) and Eastern busways (2011), uniting all corridors into one system (Figure 2).
Figure 1: Brisbane City; Figure 2: Map of Brisbane busway stations
Brisbanes busways are considered as one of the most successful cases of BRT in the world, especially within developed countries ADDIN EN.CITE Hoffman200810(Hoffman, 2008)101027Hoffman, AlanAdvanced Network Planning for Bus Rapid Transit: The Quickway Model as a Modal Alternative to Light Rail Lite1-1162008Federal Transit AdministrationFL-26-7104-4( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "Hoffman, 2008 #10" Hoffman, 2008). Busway stations have a distinguishable design and they fit splendidly into local environment and climate conditions ADDIN EN.CITE Rathwell20028(Rathwell and Schijns, 2002)8817Rathwell, SeanSchijns, StephenOttawa and Brisbane: Comparing a mature busway system with its state-of-the-art progenyJournal of public TransportationJournal of public Transportation85220021077-291X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Rathwell, 2002 #8" Rathwell and Schijns, 2002). To date, the busway network comprises 28 stops with plans for extension of the Northern corridor to Bracken Ridge and the Eastern corridor to Capalaba. However, construction is dependent on further government decisions and funds availability ADDIN EN.CITE Department of Transport and Main Roads2016125(Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2016)12512512Department of Transport and Main Roads,Busways201617 April2016http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/busways.aspx( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2016 #125" Department of Transport and Main Roads, 2016). Technical characteristics of Brisbane busways corridors are given in a Table 1.
Table 1: Technical characteristics of busways in Brisbane
Corridor nameSouth East
BuswayNorthern
BuswayEastern
BuswayYear corridor commenced200020082009Peak load, corridor (passengers per hour per direction)19,900
12,500
9,400
Daily demand, corridor (passengers per day)160,200
108,300
88,300
Corridor length (km)16.57.94Grade-separated intersectionsAllAllAllNumber of stations1087Station spacing16501134667 Speed limit (km/h)808060Real time informationAllAllAllTotal cost per kilometer, (US$ million per km)
12.85
AU$ 400 million65.59
AU$ 691 million155.8
AU$ 831 millionSource: ADDIN EN.CITE BRTDATA.ORG2016127(BRTDATA.ORG, 2016)12712712BRTDATA.ORG,201617 April 2016http://brtdata.org/( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_5" \o "BRTDATA.ORG, 2016 #127" BRTDATA.ORG, 2016)
Besides performance success, the question of integration of busway stations into surrounding land uses has never been investigated in much detail. Rathwell and Schijns ADDIN EN.CITE Rathwell20028(2002)8817Rathwell, SeanSchijns, StephenOttawa and Brisbane: Comparing a mature busway system with its state-of-the-art progenyJournal of public TransportationJournal of public Transportation85220021077-291X( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Rathwell, 2002 #8" 2002) mention two stations that are fully integrated with already existing environment: Mater Hill hospital and Garden City shopping centre. As well, some authors discussed opportunities of land capitalization within the alignment of the busway corridor. In the other study, Levinson et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Levinson200312(2003)121217Levinson, HerbertZimmerman, SamuelClinger, JenniferGast, JamesBus rapid transit: Synthesis of case studiesTransportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research BoardTransportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board1-11184120030361-1981( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_18" \o "Levinson, 2003 #12" 2003) detected an increase in property values near the busway up to 20%, which is from 2 or 3 times larger than more distant locations in Brisbane. Hoffman ADDIN EN.CITE Hoffman200810(2008)101027Hoffman, AlanAdvanced Network Planning for Bus Rapid Transit: The Quickway Model as a Modal Alternative to Light Rail Lite1-1162008Federal Transit AdministrationFL-26-7104-4( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "Hoffman, 2008 #10" 2008) mentions that the idea of busways promised to deliver transit to places where people live rather than make them use transit.
The South East Queensland Regional Plan 2009-2031 ADDIN EN.CITE Queensland Government2009128(Queensland Government, 2009)12812817Queensland Government,Plan 20092031The State of Queensland (Queensland Department of Infrastructure and Planning) ISBNThe State of Queensland (Queensland Department of Infrastructure and Planning) ISBN2009( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Queensland Government, 2009 #128" Queensland Government, 2009) aims to promote compact development and defines key principles of TOD for high-capacity public transport systems. Apparently such TOD plans were not considered at the moment of the busways construction. Early attempts of reshaping the area in a TOD fashion faced the opposition of local communities; for instance, with an incident in Holland Park ADDIN EN.CITE Tanko20135(Tanko and Burke, 2013)5510Tanko, MichaelBurke, MatthewHow Did Brisbane Get its Busways? Findings of a study into mode-choice decision-making in Brisbane2013Australian Transport Research Forum, 2013, Proceedings( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_28" \o "Tanko, 2013 #5" Tanko and Burke, 2013). Vincent and Callaghan Jerram ADDIN EN.CITE Vincent20087(2008)7717Vincent, WilliamCallaghan Jerram, LisaBus rapid transit and transit oriented development: case studies on transit oriented development around bus rapid transit systems in north America and AustraliaBreakthrough Technologies Institute. Washington, DCBreakthrough Technologies Institute. Washington, DC2008( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_30" \o "Vincent, 2008 #7" 2008) characterized Brisbane busway stations in terms of the possibility of TOD appearance as: 1) areas already established with some TOD features prior to construction; 2) new developments which occurred near busways; 3) urban infill. The authors also admit that all changes which happened after the busways construction are more likely related to market forces rather than policies or planning strategies. In a local study, Kamruzzaman et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Kamruzzaman2014134(2014)13413417Kamruzzaman, MdBaker, DouglasWashington, SimonTurrell, GavinAdvance transit oriented development typology: case study in Brisbane, AustraliaJournal of Transport GeographyJournal of Transport geography54-703420140966-6923( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Kamruzzaman, 2014 #134" 2014) developed a typology of TOD suitable for Brisbane city as: 1) neighbourhoods featuring the quality of an existing residential TOD (15%); 2) neighbourhoods featuring the quality of an existing activity centre TOD (10%); 3) neighbourhoods featuring the quality of potential TODs (46%); and, 4) neighbourhoods requiring both land use and transport investment to qualify as a TOD (29%). They also find that both modes bus and rail are suitable for TOD in Brisbane. However, Blakely and Black ADDIN EN.CITE Blakely200719(2007)191910Blakely, EdwardBlack, JohnTransit-oriented Developments and Busways in AustraliaProceedings of 11th World Conference on Transport Research Society Conference, University of California: Berkeley, CA, USA2007( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_1" \o "Blakely, 2007 #19" 2007) in the review of busway cases in Australia argued that there is no evidence that a full bus TOD has occurred in Australia yet.
3.2. Data
For this analysis of Brisbanes BRT, the land use data for spatial analysis from the following sources were used:
Brisbanes city zoning plans ( http://cityplan2014maps.brisbane.qld.gov.au/CityPlan/);
Spatial units according to Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS) structure (http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/1270.0.55.001July%202011?OpenDocument);
Street network from the Australian Urban Research Infrastructure (AURIN) portal (http://aurin.org.au/);
Public transport network data from the General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) of TransLink, the public transport agency of Queensland: (https://translink.com.au/about-translink/open-data).
4. Methodology
4.1. Lands distribution
To have an understanding of how land use is distributed within the study area, the Brisbane city zoning plan were analysed by categories of allowed types of development. All existing stations except the Springwood busway station (which is in the Logan City Council with no data available) were investigated. The stations geographic locations and zoning plans have been input into the ArcGIS ADDIN EN.CITE ESRI2015139(ESRI, 2015)1391399ESRI ArcGIS 10.3 for Desktop2015 Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "ESRI, 2015 #139" ESRI, 2015) software. Buffer areas of 800 m were created for each station. All land use categories which fall within those buffer zones were analysed. According to the summary statistics from all stations, the largest zoning type share is low-medium density residential (2 or 3 storey mix), followed by character residential (infill housing). Interestingly, the character residential development policy supports low-density suburban development and preserves identity lifestyle with certain types of buildings allowed to be constructed ADDIN EN.CITE Brisbane City Council2014130(Brisbane City Council, 2014a)13013046Brisbane City Council, 2014Brisbane City Plan 2014http://eplan.brisbane.qld.gov.au/?doc=HighDensityResZC( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Brisbane City Council, 2014 #130" Brisbane City Council, 2014a). In contrast, the low-medium density residential code allows mixed development with urban consolidation and is supportive of walking neighbourhoods oriented around public transit ADDIN EN.CITE Brisbane City Council2014129(Brisbane City Council, 2014b)12912946Brisbane City Council, 2014Brisbane City Plan 2014http://eplan.brisbane.qld.gov.au/?doc=HighDensityResZC( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Brisbane City Council, 2014 #129" Brisbane City Council, 2014b). Those very different types of zoning have almost an equal share in land distribution around busway stations. This preliminary analysis of the zoning plan indicates that busway stations naturally group into three categories after the type of dominant land use:
Substantially residential: (Boggo Road, Buranda, Greenslopes, Holland Park, Kedron Brook, Langlands Park, Lutwyche, Mater Hill, PA Hospital, Stones Corner, Truro Street, Upper Mt Gravatt, Woolloongabba) all have a dominant land use type as residential. Nevertheless, these areas are very diverse with low-medium density, character residential, and mixed uses with a significant part of high density residential uses. Low-density residential as a dominant land use is observed just at the Holland Park area with a very small mix of other land uses. Not surprisingly, that early attempt of TOD implementation faced opposition of local residents in Holland Park.
Urban infills: (Queen Street, King George Square, Roma Street Station, South Bank, Cultural Centre) all were constructed as urban infill within a well-established area, where the dominant zoning types are city centre, mixed use, open space, entertainment and conference centre.
Mixed facilities: (Griffith, UQ lakes, Dutton Park, Federation Street, RBWH, Normanby, Herston, Eight Mile Plains) all consist of a mix between residential types and mixed uses of education, health care, transportation facilities, etc.
Figure 3 illustrates the station areas distribution to the groups according to a dominant type of land use in each neighbourhood.
Figure 3: Land groups
4.2. Land use mix
To find the diversity of types of allowed development in the study areas, Land Use Mix (LUM) indices were calculated. There are two major ways of measuring land use mixes: an entropy-based metric, which indicates how well-represented all types of land uses are in the area of investigation; and, a dissimilaritybased metric, which accounts for the land use types of adjacent parcels ADDIN EN.CITE Litman200533(Litman, 2005)333317Litman, ToddLand use impacts on transport: How land use factors affect travel behavior
Victoria Transport Policy InstituteVictoria Transport Policy Institute2005( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_19" \o "Litman, 2005 #33" Litman, 2005). Considering the data characteristics, more suitable would be an entropy formula of LUM. This measure was widely applied in previous research on transportation, land use and health studies ADDIN EN.CITE Kockelman199772(Kockelman, 1997, Duncan, 2010)727217Kockelman, KaraTravel behavior as function of accessibility, land use mixing, and land use balance: evidence from San Francisco Bay AreaTransportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research BoardTransportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board116-125160719970361-1981Duncan201058585817Duncan, MichaelThe impact of transit-oriented development on housing prices in San Diego, CAUrban studiesUrban studies101-12748120100042-0980( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_17" \o "Kockelman, 1997 #72" Kockelman, 1997, HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_11" \o "Duncan, 2010 #58" Duncan, 2010):
where k indicates the category of zoning, QUOTE is a proportional share of this zoning category within the study area, and N is the overall number of categories included. The values of LUM can be between 0 and 1, from a very low mix to a highly diverse mix. All allowed types of development were reclassified into several major categories: "Residential" which includes different types of residential zoning as low-medium residential, character residential, high density residential, etc.; "Recreational" which includes sport venues and open spaces; "Institutional" which is comprised of education, health care, industry, and retail options; "Centre" which represents city centre, mixed uses or emerging communities; and an "Other" category which incorporates zones not included in the above classification, such as rural, environment or conservation lands. Results of the estimated entropy measures are presented in Table 2.
Overall, the mixed group of study areas exhibit relatively high entropy indices. Relatively low scores were obtained for some areas within the residential group, such as Holland Park, which shows a homogeneous structure of development with 34% of low-density residential type. UQ Lakes as well shows low mixes due to a majority of lands dedicated to educational facilities (the University of Queensland). Also, some of the previous researchers argue that higher levels of entropy are less desired in mostly residential neighbourhoods ADDIN EN.CITE Zhou200888(Zhou and Kockelman, 2008)888817Zhou, BinKockelman, Kara MNeighborhood impacts on land use change: a multinomial logit model of spatial relationshipsThe Annals of Regional ScienceThe Annals of Regional Science321-34042220080570-1864( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_31" \o "Zhou, 2008 #88" Zhou and Kockelman, 2008). As we see, implementation of TOD in such areas is highly difficult and more likely will be opposed by the residents.
Table 2: Land Use Mix
Number
Station nameName of busway corridor
Group typeLUM01Kedron Brook Northern BuswayResidential0.48402Lutwyche Northern BuswayResidential0.44503Truro Street Northern BuswayResidential0.41504Federation Street Northern BuswayMixed0.84005RBWH Northern BuswayMixed0.65506Herston Northern BuswayMixed0.61907QUT Kelvin Grove Northern BuswayMixed0.78908Normanby Northern BuswayMixed0.66909Roma Street Busway Northern BuswayCentre0.73010King George Square Northern BuswayCentre0.21111Queen Street South East buswayCentre0.38312Cultural Centre South East buswayCentre0.30613South Bank Busway South East buswayCentre0.46214Mater Hill South East buswayResidential0.72415Woolloongabba South East buswayResidential0.76716Buranda busway South East buswayResidential0.37917Holland Park West South East buswayResidential0.33718Griffith University South East buswayMixed0.51919Upper Mt Gravatt South East buswayResidential0.66320Eight Mile Plains South East buswayMixed0.946n/aSpringwood South East buswayn/an/a21UQ Lakes Eastern BuswayMixed0.28822Dutton Park PlaceEastern BuswayMixed0.61123Boggo Road Eastern BuswayResidential0.00124PA Hospital Eastern BuswayResidential0.33725Stones Corner Eastern BuswayResidential0.46626Langlands ParkEastern BuswayResidential0.41927Greenslopes Eastern BuswayResidential0.623
4.3. Public Transport Accessibility
In this part of the analysis we are interested in transportation characteristics for the whole network and not just in the busway areas, to give us a comprehensive picture of the network state. The following approach has been previously chosen for a local study ADDIN EN.CITE Kamruzzaman2014134(Kamruzzaman et al., 2014)13413417Kamruzzaman, MdBaker, DouglasWashington, SimonTurrell, GavinAdvance transit oriented development typology: case study in Brisbane, AustraliaJournal of Transport GeographyJournal of Transport geography54-703420140966-6923( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Kamruzzaman, 2014 #134" Kamruzzaman et al., 2014). They developed a typology for places suitable for TOD practices by deriving a set of transport and land use indicators. In this preliminary analysis we aim to follow their approach in estimation of Public Transport Accessibility Levels (PTALs).
PTAL as a measure initially was developed by Transport for London ADDIN EN.CITE Transport for London2010140(Transport for London, 2010)14014027Transport for London,Measuring Public Transport Accessibility Levels1-82010London( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_29" \o "Transport for London, 2010 #140" Transport for London, 2010) . The model consists of several sections where different parameters of the transport network are calculated. The PTAL incorporates service frequency, number of routes available, reliability, and access time to the mode in each catchment area. For developing of PTALs, spatial data from ABS with statistical borders were used. Stops and stations geographical coordinates and service timetables were derived from GTFS. We considered as the main point of attraction the spatial statistical unit of Statistical Area Level 1, the smallest statistical unit within the Census 2011 in the new geographical standard (ASGS). Accessibility levels were calculated for all 2572 SA1 areas in Brisbane. Access points to transport (as stop, station or terminal) have been taken as being within a walking distance of 800 m or 10 mins with a walking speed 80 meters/minute. Route frequencies were taken for the morning peak on a working day (Monday from 07:00 am to 09:00 am). The route frequencies were chosen, between inbound and outbound, as the one with a higher value. Given these parameters, the total access time has been obtained as a sum of the walk time and average waiting time. The average waiting time consists of scheduled waiting time (SWT) and the reliability of factors that are applied to it: SWT = 0.5*(60/Frequency), and the reliability factor was taken as 2 mins for bus and 0.75 mins for rail. The access time was converted to an equivalent doorstep frequency (EDF), and a final accessibility index was obtained as a summation of all EDF values ADDIN EN.CITE Transport for London2010140(Transport for London, 2010)14014027Transport for London,Measuring Public Transport Accessibility Levels1-82010London( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_29" \o "Transport for London, 2010 #140" Transport for London, 2010). However, a few conditions have to be adjusted, since often routes travel in parallel for some distance, so that the actual frequency will be lesser than a calculated one. Additionally, time for interchanges will bring some delays to a passenger journey that is not accounted for here. To compensate for these drawbacks, we halved all route frequencies, except for the dominant route for every transport mode. The overall accessibility index for every SA1 is calculated by the summation of all individual accessibilities for bus routes in that SA1.
Figure 4 illustrates accessibility levels for all SA1 regions of Brisbane. From the figure we can observe the most accessible areas in Brisbane. As is expected, the highest levels of services are available in the city centre along with the surrounding inner suburbs. The high accessibility area expands alongside rail and busway corridors as well. Some areas have very low accessibility levels due to the limited services and present more like outliers. Obviously areas with lower residential density will indicate lesser accessibility levels as they may contain some major industries, health care facilities, parks or education zones.
Figure 4: Public Transport Accessibility Levels (PTALs) in Brisbane City
5. Discussion
The present paper examined the history of research on Brisbane busways in order to raise a discussion on BRT and land use interaction. We analysed the current land use distribution within a busway alignment, and this suggests possible groupings of lands with similar characteristics as residential, mixed or city centre facilities. These types of land uses are enjoying high levels of accessibility within the full length of the busway. Some of these groups are more likely to embrace TOD practices, as they are areas with higher diversity of land uses and zoning policies encouraging mixed types of development.
The obvious limitation of this study is the zoning-level type of data. Such data give the knowledge of the allowable development; however, they are not representative of every land parcel. Firstly, more detailed cadastral (parcel-level) data is required. Disaggregated data enables more precise description of the land use distribution. Secondly, the data before and after construction is needed to capture changes in land use through the years.
In future this research is planned to be expanded by utilizing more detailed cadastral land use data. More types of analysis will be enabled with detailed data. This will allow us to develop a framework for a longitudinal change analysis, looking at changes in land use over time rather than through a cross-sectional study. The accessibility analysis may be also improved by applying shortest path (network) algorithms to walking distances, to demonstrate more accurate walk access results. Finally, site visits may be helpful in consideration of station and site design features.
6. Conclusion
Today BRT takes an important place among the other transportation modes, and it is necessary to account for all opportunities it can provide. A significant number of BRT studies have been conducted in Latin American and Asian countries. As well, the busway projects in Australia are attracting more attention to this topic. The previous studies from Brisbane have not investigated BRT and its land use connection in a detail. A lack of works is associated with challenges in obtaining high quality data. However, the necessity to leverage all opportunities provided by the new busway infrastructure will lead to more research and therefore reflect on policies benefitting local residents and city economics overall.
Acknowledgement
Brisbane City Zoning data in a GIS form has been kindly provided by Brisbane City Council. The research described in this paper has been supported in part by the Academic Strategic Transport Research Alliance (ASTRA) agreement between the Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads and the University of Queensland.
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ATRF 2016 Proceedings
Bus Rapid Transit and the features of land distribution: A case study of Brisbane
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